Power of Words: Influence of Preexercise Information on Hypoalgesia after Exercise-Randomized Controlled Trial.

PURPOSE: Exercise increases pressure pain thresholds (PPT) in pain-free individuals, known as exercise-induced hypoalgesia (EIH). Positive preexercise information can elicit higher EIH responses, but the effect of positive versus negative preexercise information on EIH is unknown. The primary aim of this randomized controlled trial was to compare EIH at the exercising thigh muscle after an isometric squat exercise between individuals receiving positive versus negative preexercise information about the effect of exercise on pain. Secondary aims were to compare EIH at nonexercising muscles between groups, and to investigate the relationship between participants' expectations and EIH. METHODS: Eighty-three participants were randomly assigned to brief positive (n = 28), neutral (n = 28) or negative (n = 27) verbal information. The neutral information group was included in the study as a reference group. Pressure pain thresholds at the thigh and trapezius muscles were assessed before and after the intervention (i.e., preexercise information+squat exercise). Expectations of pain relief were assessed using a numerical rating scale (-10 [most negative] to 10 [most positive]). RESULTS: Change in quadriceps and trapezius PPT after the squat exercise showed a large difference between the positive and negative information groups (quadriceps, 102 kPa; 95% confidence interval, 55-150; effect size, 1.2; trapezius, 41 kPa; 95% confidence interval, 16-65; effect size:, 0.9). The positive information group had a 22% increase in quadriceps PPT whereas the negative information group had a 4% decrease. A positive correlation was found between expectations and increase in PPT. CONCLUSIONS: Negative preexercise information caused hyperalgesia after the wall squat exercise, whereas positive or neutral preexercise information caused hypoalgesia. Positive preexercise information did not change the magnitude of EIH compared with neutral information.

Add a comment how fitspiration and body positive captions attached to social media images influence the mood and body esteem of young female Instagram users.

Social media content can negatively influence body esteem in young women by reinforcing beliefs that to be considered attractive, people must look a certain way. The current study examines how text associated with attractive social media images impacts on female users' mood and feelings about their own body. Female participants (N = 109) aged between 18 and 25 years were randomly allocated to one of three conditions in which they viewed the same fitspiration-style images from Instagram. However, the captions associated with each image were experimentally manipulated to reflect either a fitspiration, body positive, or neutral theme. Images associated with fitspiration captions encouraging observers to improve their personal fitness led to increased negative mood. When body-positive captions encouraging the self-acceptance of appearance or highlighting the unrealistic nature of social media content were viewed with the same images, no increase in negative affect was observed, and participants reported greater body esteem post exposure. The findings provide partial support for the idea that body positive comments accompanying images on Instagram may have some protective value for female body esteem. Captions may play an important part in observers' reactions to social media images, beyond the influence of the images alone.

Effects of verbal instructions and physical threat removal prior to extinction training on the return of conditioned fear.

Instructions given prior to extinction training facilitate the extinction of conditioned skin conductance (SCRs) and fear-potentiated startle responses (FPSs) and serve as laboratory models for cognitive interventions implemented in exposure-based treatments of pathological anxiety. Here, we investigated how instructions given prior to extinction training, with or without the additional removal of the electrode used to deliver the unconditioned stimulus (US), affect the return of fear assessed 24 hours later. We replicated previous instruction effects on extinction and added that the additional removal of the US electrode slightly enhanced facilitating effects on the extinction of conditioned FPSs. In contrast, extinction instructions hardly affected the return of conditioned fear responses. These findings suggest that instruction effects observed during extinction training do not extent to tests of return of fear 24 hours later which serve as laboratory models of relapse and improvement stability of exposure-based treatments.

The use of auditory feedback and edible reinforcement to decrease toe walking among children with autism.

We replicated and extended previous research on the use of auditory feedback to decrease toe walking exhibited by 3 children with autism. After pretreatment screening analyses suggested that toe walking occurred independent of social consequences, we attached squeakers to the heels of each participants' shoes. The squeakers provided auditory feedback when participants walked appropriately (i.e., with a heel-to-toe gait). For all participants, the auditory feedback itself produced increases in appropriate walking. For 1 participant, this feedback was sufficient to reduce toe walking to clinically acceptable levels; however, for 2 other participants, delivery of edible items paired with the auditory feedback was necessary. Intervention effects maintained when the schedule for edible delivery was thinned for all participants. In addition, for 2 participants, effects maintained when the intervention was implemented in a different setting and with a different person with no edibles or a thin schedule of edibles.

Language preference and reinforcing efficacy of praise in bilingual children with disabilities.

We conducted a stimulus preference assessment to identify preference for praise delivered in English versus Spanish for bilingual students. Next, a concurrent-operant reinforcer assessment was used to evaluate the reinforcer efficacy of praise in each language. Participants showed limited to no preference for one language over another. One participant showed a slight preference for Spanish praise and Spanish praise functioned as a slightly more potent reinforcer. If a participant did not prefer a specific language of praise (i.e., undifferentiated preference or equal percentage of approaches), both languages were considered to be similarly reinforcing.

Verbal Instruction Reduces Patellofemoral Joint Loading During Bodyweight Squatting.

CONTEXT: The bodyweight squat exercise is a common component for treatment and prevention of patellofemoral pain; however, it can also place a high load on the patellofemoral joint. Restricting anterior motion of the knees relative to the toes during squatting appears to reduce patellofemoral loading. However, exercise professionals typically rely on verbal instructions to alter squat technique. OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the influence of verbal instructions regarding squat technique on patellofemoral joint loading. DESIGN: Cross-sectional study. SETTING: Motion analysis laboratory. PARTICIPANTS: Eleven uninjured females. INTERVENTION: Participants performed bodyweight squats before (baseline) and after receiving verbal instructions to limit anterior knee motion. Two different types of verbal instruction were used, one intended to promote an internal focus of attention and the other intended to promote an external focus of attention. Three-dimensional kinematics and kinetics were recorded using a multicamera system and force plate. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Sagittal plane patellofemoral joint forces and stress were estimated using a musculoskeletal model. RESULTS: Participants demonstrated a reduction in patellofemoral joint forces (35.4 vs 31.3 N/kg; P = .01) and stress (10.7 vs 9.2 mPa; P = .002) after receiving instructions promoting an internal focus of attention, compared with their baseline trials. Participants also demonstrated a reduction in patellofemoral joint forces (35.4 vs 32.3 N/kg; P = .03) and stress (10.7 vs 9.6 mPa; P = .04) after receiving instructions promoting an external focus of attention (vs baseline). However, there were no significant differences in patellofemoral forces (P = .84) or stress (P = .41) for trials performed with an internal versus external attentional focus. CONCLUSION: It appears that verbal instruction regarding knee position influences patellofemoral joint loading during squatting.

Young children are more likely to cheat after overhearing that a classmate is smart.

Research on moral socialization has largely focused on the role of direct communication and has almost completely ignored a potentially rich source of social influence: evaluative comments that children overhear. We examined for the first time whether overheard comments can shape children's moral behavior. Three- and 5-year-old children (N = 200) participated in a guessing game in which they were instructed not to cheat by peeking. We randomly assigned children to a condition in which they overheard an experimenter tell another adult that a classmate who was no longer present is smart, or to a control condition in which the overheard conversation consisted of non-social information. We found that 5-year-olds, but not 3-year-olds, cheated significantly more often if they overheard the classmate praised for being smart. These findings show that the effects of ability praise can spread far beyond the intended recipient to influence the behavior of children who are mere observers, and they suggest that overheard evaluative comments can be an important force in shaping moral development.

Cognitive and neural mechanisms underlying the mnemonic effect of songs after stroke.

Sung melody provides a mnemonic cue that can enhance the acquisition of novel verbal material in healthy subjects. Recent evidence suggests that also stroke patients, especially those with mild aphasia, can learn and recall novel narrative stories better when they are presented in sung than spoken format. Extending this finding, the present study explored the cognitive mechanisms underlying this effect by determining whether learning and recall of novel sung vs. spoken stories show a differential pattern of serial position effects (SPEs) and chunking effects in non-aphasic and aphasic stroke patients (N = 31) studied 6 months post-stroke. The structural neural correlates of these effects were also explored using voxel-based morphometry (VBM) and deterministic tractography (DT) analyses of structural MRI data. Non-aphasic patients showed more stable recall with reduced SPEs in the sung than spoken task, which was coupled with greater volume and integrity (indicated by fractional anisotropy, FA) of the left arcuate fasciculus. In contrast, compared to non-aphasic patients, the aphasic patients showed a larger recency effect (better recall of the last vs. middle part of the story) and enhanced chunking (larger units of correctly recalled consecutive items) in the sung than spoken task. In aphasics, the enhanced chunking and better recall on the middle verse in the sung vs. spoken task correlated also with better ability to perceive emotional prosody in speech. Neurally, the sung > spoken recency effect in aphasic patients was coupled with greater grey matter volume in a bilateral network of temporal, frontal, and parietal regions and also greater volume of the right inferior fronto-occipital fasciculus (IFOF). These results provide novel cognitive and neurobiological insight on how a repetitive sung melody can function as a verbal mnemonic aid after stroke.

Verbal instructions override the meaning of facial expressions.

Psychological research has long acknowledged that facial expressions can implicitly trigger affective psychophysiological responses. However, whether verbal information can alter the meaning of facial emotions and corresponding response patterns has not been tested. This study examined emotional facial expressions as cues for instructed threat-of-shock or safety, with a focus on defensive responding. In addition, reversal instructions were introduced to test the impact of explicit safety instructions on fear extinction. Forty participants were instructed that they would receive unpleasant electric shocks, for instance, when viewing happy but not angry faces. In a second block, instructions were reversed (e.g., now angry faces cued shock). Happy, neutral, and angry faces were repeatedly presented, and auditory startle probes were delivered in half of the trials. The defensive startle reflex was potentiated for threat compared to safety cues. Importantly, this effect occurred regardless of whether threat was cued by happy or angry expressions. Although the typical pattern of response habituation was observed, defense activation to newly instructed threat cues remained significantly enhanced in the second part of the experiment, and it was more pronounced in more socially anxious participants. Thus, anxious individuals did not exhibit more pronounced defense activation compared to less anxious participants, but their defense activation was more persistent.

A review on the effects of verbal instructions in human fear conditioning: Empirical findings, theoretical considerations, and future directions.

Fear learning reflects the adaptive ability to learn to anticipate aversive events and to display preparatory fear reactions based on prior experiences. Usually, these learning experiences are modeled in the lab with pairings between a neutral conditioned stimulus (CS) and an aversive unconditioned stimulus (US) (i.e., fear conditioning via CS-US pairings). Nevertheless, for humans, fear learning can also be based on verbal instructions. In this review, we consider the role of verbal instructions in laboratory fear learning. Specifically, we consider both the effects of verbal instructions on fear responses in the absence of CS-US pairings as well as the way in which verbal instructions moderate fear established via CS-US pairings. We first focus on the available empirical findings about both types of effects. More specifically, we consider how these effects are moderated by elements of the fear conditioning procedure (i.e., the stimuli, the outcome measures, the relationship between the stimuli, the participants, and the broader context). Thereafter, we discuss how well different mental-process models of fear learning account for these empirical findings. Finally, we conclude the review with a discussion of open questions and opportunities for future research.

Assessing Mand Topography Preference When Developing a Functional Communication Training Intervention.

Functional communication training (FCT) is a common function-based behavioral intervention used to decrease problem behavior by teaching an alternative communication response. Therapists often arbitrarily select the topography of the alternative response, which may influence long-term effectiveness of the intervention. Assessing individual mand topography preference may increase treatment effectiveness and promote self-determination in the development of interventions. This study sought to reduce arbitrary selection of FCT mand topography by determining preference during response training and acquisition for two adults with autism who had no functional communication skills. Both participants demonstrated a clear preference for one mand topography during choice probes, and the preferred topography was then reinforced during FCT to reduce problem behavior and increase independent communication. The implications of the results for future research on mand selection during FCT are discussed.

Lag Schedules and Functional Communication Training: Persistence of Mands and Relapse of Problem Behavior.

We evaluated the effects of lag schedules of reinforcement and functional communication training (FCT) on mand variability and problem behavior in two children with autism spectrum disorder. Specifically, we implemented FCT with increasing lag schedules and compared its effects on problem behavior with baseline conditions. The results showed that both participants exhibited low rates of problem behavior during treatment relative to baseline during and following schedule thinning (up to a Lag 5 schedule arrangement). Variable and total mands remained high during schedule thinning. With one participant, variable manding persisted when the value of the lag schedule was reduced to zero. The current results are discussed in terms of implications for training multiple mand topographies during FCT for the potential prevention and/or mitigation of clinical relapse during challenges to treatment.

Effects of verbal encouragement on force and electromyographic activations during exercise.

BACKGROUND: The aim of the present study was to examine the effects of verbal encouragement on isometric force and associated electromyographic (EMG) parameters during a handgrip task. METHODS: Twenty-three participants (12 women and 11 men) performed maximal voluntary isometric handgrip contractions following three conditions: 1) verbal encouragement (VE) condition: participants executed isometric contractions while being verbally encouraged; 2) non-verbal encouragement (nVE) condition: the same starting and stopping signal but without encouragement; 3) non-concentration and non-motivation (nCM) condition: self-initiated contractions without concentration and motivation. Start and stop of the contraction were self-initiated. The maximal voluntary force (MVF) and the maximal rate of force development (MRFD) were measured. Integrated EMG corresponding to MVF (iEMGMVF) and to MRFD (iEMGMRFD) were collected from flexor digitorum superficialis (FDS) and extensor digitorum communis (EDC) muscles. RESULTS: MVF was higher during VE compared with nVE (+11.7%; P<0.05) and nCM (+23.2%; P<0.05) conditions. Likewise, MRFD was significantly higher during VE, compared with nVE (+21.7%; P<0.05) and nCM (+55.4%; P<0.05) conditions. iEMGMVF increased for FDS and EDC during VE, compared to nVE (+26.19%, +20.5%) and nCM conditions (+68.85%, +48.91%), respectively. iEMGMRFD increased for FDS and EDC during VE, compared to nVE (+21.2%, +46.07%) and nCM conditions (+23.79%, +42.32%). Furthermore, the reproducibility of all these indices was higher with VE condition. CONCLUSIONS: Taken together, force production (MVF and MRFD) and EMG data supported the view that muscles activity is considerably influenced by the verbal encouragements during isometric force exercise.

Spatiotemporal neural characterization of prediction error valence and surprise during reward learning in humans.

Reward learning depends on accurate reward associations with potential choices. These associations can be attained with reinforcement learning mechanisms using a reward prediction error (RPE) signal (the difference between actual and expected rewards) for updating future reward expectations. Despite an extensive body of literature on the influence of RPE on learning, little has been done to investigate the potentially separate contributions of RPE valence (positive or negative) and surprise (absolute degree of deviation from expectations). Here, we coupled single-trial electroencephalography with simultaneously acquired fMRI, during a probabilistic reversal-learning task, to offer evidence of temporally overlapping but largely distinct spatial representations of RPE valence and surprise. Electrophysiological variability in RPE valence correlated with activity in regions of the human reward network promoting approach or avoidance learning. Electrophysiological variability in RPE surprise correlated primarily with activity in regions of the human attentional network controlling the speed of learning. Crucially, despite the largely separate spatial extend of these representations our EEG-informed fMRI approach uniquely revealed a linear superposition of the two RPE components in a smaller network encompassing visuo-mnemonic and reward areas. Activity in this network was further predictive of stimulus value updating indicating a comparable contribution of both signals to reward learning.

The effects of attentional focus instructions on punching velocity and impact forces among trained combat athletes.

Research indicates that instructing athlete's to focus on bodily movements (internal focus of attention [IFA]) may hinder performance, whereas instructing them to focus on the movement outcome (external focus of attention [EFA]) often enhances performance. Despite the importance of instructions in striking combat sports, limited research has examined the influence of IFA and EFA on performance in well-trained combat athletes. This study investigated the effects of different instructional cues on punching velocity (m · s-1) and normalised impact forces (N · kg-1) among intermediate (n = 8) and expert (n = 7) competitive boxers and kickboxers. Athletes completed three rounds of 12 maximal effort punches delivered to a punching integrator on three separate days. Day one was a familiarisation session with only control instructions provided. In the following two days athletes randomly received IFA, EFA or control instructions prior to each of the three rounds. Athletes punching with EFA were 4% faster and 5% more forceful than IFA (P < 0.05), and 2% faster and 3% more forceful than control (P < 0.05). Furthermore, experts punched 11% faster and with 13% greater force compared with intermediate athletes (P < 0.05). EFA led to a positive effect on punching performance and should be favoured over IFA and control instructions.

Strategies to improve the Willingness to Taste: The moderating role of children's Reward Sensitivity.

The present study investigates the effectiveness of different strategies to improve Willingness to Taste disliked vegetables and the moderating role of Reward Sensitivity. Preschool children (N = 204; age: M = 4.48, SD = 1.01) were randomly allocated to one of four different Willingness to Taste strategies. The findings indicate that first, Willingness to Taste is higher in the modelling and reward strategies compared to neutral instructions. Second, there is a differential effect of Willingness to Taste strategies dependent upon individual differences: children high in Reward Sensitivity were more likely to taste immediately when rewarded, while children low in Reward Sensitivity were more willing to taste when verbally encouraged, but with hesitation. This article thus highlights the roles of both individual differences and behavioral techniques for promoting a healthy diet in children.

Teaching psychomotor skills in the twenty-first century: Revisiting and reviewing instructional approaches through the lens of contemporary literature.

A diverse range of health professionals use psychomotor skills as part of their professional practice roles. Most health disciplines use large or complex psychomotor skills. These skills are first taught by the educator then acquired, performed, and lastly learned. Psychomotor skills may be taught using a variety of widely-accepted and published teaching models. The number of teaching steps used in these models varies from two to seven. However, the utility of these models to teach skill acquisition and skill retention are disputable when teaching complex skills, in contrast to simple skills. Contemporary motor learning and cognition literature frames instructional practices which may assist the teaching and learning of complex task-based skills. This paper reports 11 steps to be considered when teaching psychomotor skills.

Enhanced retention of drop vertical jump landing technique: A randomized controlled trial.

External focus instructions have been shown to result in superior motor performance compared to internal focus instructions. Using an EF may help to optimize current anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) injury prevention programs. The purpose of the current study was to investigate the effects of instructions on landing technique and performance by comparing an external focus (EF), internal focus (IF), video (VI) and control (CTRL) group. Subjects (age 22.50±1.62years, height 179.70±10.43cm, mass 73.98±12.68kg) were randomly assigned to IF (n=10), EF (n=10), VI (n=10) or CTRL group (n=10). Landing was assessed from a drop vertical jump (DVJ) in five sessions: pretest, two training blocks (TR1 and TR2) and directly after the training sessions (post test) and retention test 1week later. Group specific instructions were offered in TR1 and TR2. Landing technique was assessed with the Landing Error Scoring System (LESS) and jump height was taken as performance measure. The results show that males in the VI group and females both in the VI and EF groups significantly improved jump-landing technique. Retention was achieved and jump height was maintained for males in the VI group and females both in the VI and EF groups. It is therefore concluded that EF and VI instructions have great potential in ACL injury prevention.

"If You Don't Have Anything Nice to Say, Then Don't Say Anything At All": Positive Appearance-Related Commentary and Physical Activity.

BACKGROUND: Despite the well-documented benefits of physical activity, North Americans remain insufficiently inactive. Consequently, determining what motivates individuals to engage in physical activity becomes increasingly important. The purpose of this study was to examine whether the frequency of negative appearance-related commentary and positive appearance-related commentary could predict physical activity behavior. METHODS: Participants were young adult women (N = 192) who completed a series of questionnaires to assess the frequency of appearance-related commentary they received and their physical activity behavior. RESULTS: A hierarchical regression analysis indicated the overall regression was significant, F (4,187) = 4.73, P < .001, R2 adj = .07, ΔR2= .07), with positive weight/shape appearance-related commentary (ß = 470.27, P < .001) significantly predicting physical activity behavior, while controlling for body mass index. CONCLUSIONS: Providing positive reinforcement via positive weight/shape compliments may be beneficial to motivate physical activity participation.